Ball State University
English 695
Sp 2007

GREEK DEFINITIONS OF RHETORIC/DISCOURSE/PHILOSOPHY

Sophists

A diverse group of teachers; some main emphases:

bullet Rhetoric is the art of persuasion, mostly for practical matters
such as cases at law
bullet Embraced eristics (disputations) and techniques of persuasion
no matter what the cause
bullet Sophists concerned with how language works for creating belief;
were skeptical of absolute knowledge (Protagoras; Gorgias)

Isocrates

bullet His "rhetoric" is discourse for the attainment and persuasion of
practical wisdom (phronesis); he fuses the aims of philosophy
(discovery of true knowledge) with public speaking (the public
good) in one language-based system (founded on concept of logos)
bullet Education for public participation is context for his program,
education based on broad learning and combining art, talent, and
 practice. The Liberal Arts are necessary for orators to speak well--
for the public good--on all subjects.

Plato coined term "rhetoric"

bullet "Bringing souls to knowledge" in dialogue between mentor and
learner; object is truth, not persuasion: persuasion aims toward
belief, which is uncertain; knowledge aims at absolute, eternal
truth, the only worthy object of intelligence
bullet Rhetoric per se is suspect and to be avoided, esp. the kind taught
by Gorgias et al; but oratory/public speaking can be useful when
handled by philosophers for the good of the masses (in The Republic)

For Plato, there is really one consistently desirable form of discourse--
dialectic philosophy

Aristotle

Comprehensive systematizer of knowledge, including the nature and
function of rhetorical art

Arist. cut through a lot of the controversy about truth and persuasion
to describe the real world as he saw it…and rhetoric was of paramount
importance in the real world.
 

He poses several major questions and answers them in first part of
On Rhetoric:

bullet How is R. related to philosophy? "R is the "counterpart" (antistrophe)
 of dialectic." R is universal and useful; R. is an art (techne)
bullet What is rhetoric itself? "R. may be defined as the faculty of observing
in any given case the available means of persuasion" --a technique of
the mind of the rhetor, not necessarily the mechanics of persuasion in
an audience; Also, "R. is the art of the probable in cases where choices
must be made"
bullet What is rhetorical study or education? It is concerned with the modes of
persuasion.
bullet How is persuasion achieved?  Persuasion is effected by proofs, some of
which belong to the art (artistic proofs) and some which are outside the
art (inartistic--evidence, torture)
bullet What kinds of modes of persuasion exist?

o      Ethical--focused in speaker's (or speech's) character or
nature

o      Pathetical--focused in audience's frame of mind

o      Logical--focused in the rationality of the speech itself

Arist's theory fully integrates audience, speaker and speech in a dynamic and
consistent relationship

bullet What is the "duty" of rhetoric?  To help people deal with difficult
deliberations "without systems to guide us"--e.g. legal, political issues,
and human issues
bullet What is the proper subject of rhet.? All things which present alternative
possibilities.
bullet What are the main divisions or branches of rhet?

o      Forensic (legal)

o      Deliberative (political)

o      Epideictic (ceremonial)

bullet These divisions depend on classes of listeners: the court judge and/or
jury; the legislative assembly; the general observer
 
bullet Each division has a time reference:

o      Forensic--past events

o      Deliberative--future events

o      Epideictic--present conditions

 

bullet Each division has its own general goals

o      Forensic--determination of justice or injustice

o      Deliberative--determination of expediency in future courses
of action

o      Epideictic--determination of praise or blame, honor or
dishonor in persons or institutions

bullet Arist's main focus of technique is on the means of persuasion--ethical,
logical, and pathe

o      Speaker's character projection is main element of ethos

o      Enthymemes and examples are main elements of logical
 proof

o      Audience's frame of mind is main element of pathetical proof

 

bullet Arits's rhetoric has strong moral element--enthymemes are created from
 maxims or unspoken assumptions about right and wrong; most logical
argumentation proceeds from this point.
bullet A. is also concerned with style and delivery, discussed in Third book

 

Summary of Greek Rhetorical Theorists

bullet Plato, Aristotle, Isocrates, represent three perspectives on rhetoric
important to this day:
bullet Plato deals with transcendent truth as the heart of discourse--attempts
to answer questions about WHY?
bullet Aristotle looks at all human knowledge and society, categorizes, analyzes
the functioning of discourse--attempts the question HOW?
bullet Isocrates places discourse in a social, community context to examine and
learn about relationship of thought and action--attempts the question
WHAT SHALL WE DO?