Bacon's Four Intellectual Arts (from the Advancement of Learning, Book II  1605; Bizzell and Herzberg 740-45)

Invention (Inquiry) 740

goal: discover "that which is sought or propounded"

Of Arts and Sciences

Discovery of "new knowledge"--a Big Idea for the time

Of Speech and Arguments

A "drawing out" of knowledge we already have, for an "present use"

Really a "remembrance or suggestion"

Two parts: Preparation and Suggestion

Preparation: The storing up of ready phrases and arguments, in thesi; having lots of "shoes" ready

Suggestion: "topical" invention (common "places"), useful not only for disputing but for thinking; two types, General and Special

General: use of "common topics" of which Aristotle proposed 28 and Cicero somewhat more: name, definition, causes, effects, adjuncts, divisions, etc. Ramus's 10 topics are common topics. 741

Special: heuristics leading to knowledge in particular areas or inquiry, such as law, medicine

Judgment (Examination) 741

goal: "judge that which is invented"

Proofs and Demonstrations

Proofs: two types, Induction and Deduction

Induction: drawn out of ancient practice in Plato's dialogues, and lending itself to the "exact form of judgment" in the interpretation of nature

Deduction: proceeds by syllogism, "most agreeable to the mind of man" because we all like to have immoveable grounds to base thinking on (Aristotle's First Principles); syllogism only affords partial judgment, though, in the determining of the "consequence"

Memory (Custody)

goal: "retain that which is judged"

Two parts: Writing and Memory

Writing: two parts, Character and Disposition (entry)

Character: visible language, grammar

Disposition: Setting down of studied material in commonplace books, a favorite method of Bacon "A matter of great use and essence in studying"; but methods of commonplaces are poor (e.g., Erasmus in Copia?)

Memory: Two parts: Prenotion and Emblem 742

Prenotion: "search strategy" in memory and recall, working with our "places of memory"

Emblem: "reduceth conceits intellectual to images sensible" - visual representations, pictures or symbols? or shorthand?

Tradition (Elocution)  742

goal: "deliver over that which is retained"

Three parts: The Organ, the Method, the Illustration of Discourse

Organ: Speech or Writing

Speech: implicitly, represents "cogitations"

Writing: (New Idea) writing is not necessarily the representation of speech, as Aristotle said; any symbol system ("whatsoever is capable of sufficient differences" perceivable by the senses) can express thought ("cogitations")

Method (not in B&H)

Methodical Display

The Aphorism

Illustration: the Art of Rhetoric "a science excellent, and excellently well laboured"

Duty of Rhetoric: "To apply Reason to Imagination for the better moving of the will."  743

Cf. OED definition of “apply”: I.1.a. To bring into, or place in, more or less prolonged contact, or effective proximity; to put close to; e.g. to apply a light, heat, a foot-rule to. Formerly said of bringing together men or things generally

Reason is disturbed by three means: by logical fallacy (sophisms) that impede proper thinking; by "impressions" in the brain's imaginative faculty; by "affections" that disturb the will

But human faculties can overcome these problems with proper use of reason, imagination, and will; rhetoric's special role is to "fill the imagination to second reason," notably to present the beauty of truth to the faculty of reason

Plato unfairly criticizes rhetoric (B. shows how rhet can be a positive instrument, capable of promoting virtue)

Rhet also should persuade the will through moving affections or passions; reason can present future good to the imagination to overpower the lust of the affections for the often false, present or immediately perceived good

Rhetoric works with logic, it is not separated from it (rejection of Ramus' system) 744

Major distinctions: Logic handles "reason exact and in truth"; rhetoric handles it "as it is planted in popular opinions and manners"

Aristotle right to place rhetoric between logic and political science, as participating in both

Audience is the highest consideration, both in public and private discourse

returns to "preparatory invention" strategies

Antitheta: having pro and con arguments ready on common topics

Formulae: transitional or introductory passages for connecting discourse