Quest 1 and 2

Questions 1 and 2

1. What was the general cultural and historical background in the late Middle Ages/early Renaissance (late 14th, early 15th centuries) that encouraged the revival of classical learning and rhetoric in particular?

	A growing scholarly tradition from the middle ages: “Renaissance of 12^th cen” preceded later awakenings; a “tradition interrupted”?
	Recovery (somewhat) from effects of plague and depopulation (not so severe in Italy)
	Economic prosperity in North Italian city-states; trade with East (Marco Polo et al.) brings wealth; civic consciousness in Italy resonates with classical world; rhetoricians have “scope” for their art
	Immigration from Byzantine Empire infuses Greek learning
	Rediscovery of ancient texts

2. What was Humanism and how did it define rhetoric and rhetorical study?

What is Humanism/who are Humanists? Defined largely by the people who came to be known as "Humanists"--Not "potential of human beings" in romantic sense

A student or teacher of the studia humanitatis--grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, moral philosophy patterned on classical models and theories.

A Latin reflection of the Greek ideal of paedeia, “cultivated learning”

Rhetoric developed new occasions in 14 cen Italy.

Italian Humanists were mostly teachers or public officials (exception Petrarch)--their knowledge put to practical use every day, in many ways; rhetoric central to civic conversation, political debate.

Humanists developed a consciousness of history with renewed interest in ancient cultures--they sought knowledge aobut how people acted in historical events of their time and how they deployed rhetoric to have effect on the world. Leading Humanists had public positions in cities or Papal court.

Petrarch, "founder of Humanism," "envisioned a synthesis of wisdom and eloquence in oral expression and in both civic and academic contexts." His immediate successors (in civic and papal offices) generally followed this ideal.

· Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406) Chancellor of Florentine Republic

· Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444) knew Greek well, translated Aristotle, others

· Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459)

· Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) knew Greek well, translated Plato

--all in some way connected to the papal chancery and/or office in the Florentine republic (Petrarch was a nominal monk)

Scope of rhetorical interest in letter writing expanded with Petrarch's discovery of some of Cicero's letters in 1345; letters seen again (ads in ancient times) as flexible instruments for both oratorical and personal expression. Emphasis very different from Ars dictaminis and formalism of address

Other scholars from Greek East contributed to awakening of learning

Manuel Chrysoloras - Byzantine ambassador in Florence

George of Trebizond (Trapezuntius) - emigrated to Venice in 1416; introduced Hermogenes (2nd Sophistic stylist), translated Aristotle's Rhetoric, and published first full Renaissance Art of rhetoric; also wrote on dialectic. Tremendously spurred advance of Greek in Humanist circles

Functioning of Humanists continued in track of teachers of grammar and rhetoric and notarial arts in late M.A. But Humanists’ singular enthusiasm for classical languages and literatures marked new characteristic of this group (imported from France, possibly, where enthusiasm for the arts had remained strong) (Kennedy, Cl Rhet and its Christian and Secular Tradition, 227)

"The more the Humanists learned about the classics, the more they discovered that rhetoric was the discipline which had created the forms, disposed the contents, and ornamented the pages which they admired and sought to imitate." (Kennedy, 227)

Full nature of classical rhetoric superseded medieval fixation on formulaic aridity of De inventione and Ad Herrenium. Oratory (PRIMARY RHETORIC) gained popularity and found new occasions in 14 cen Italy civic life

Pico della Mirandola's Oration on the Dignity of Man most well-known (1487)